AD 1015) the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song (1094) during the Song dynasty. AD 1000) the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (c. Other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the planisphere and other mechanical computing devices invented by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (c. 10–70 AD) made mechanical devices including automata and a programmable cart. These included the astrolabe and Antikythera mechanism from the Hellenistic world (c. Several analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. What we now call the Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as c. The abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a baboon's fibula. The Lebombo bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa may be the oldest known mathematical artifact. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Suanpan (the number represented on this abacus is 6,302,715,408)ĭevices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The cost of computers gradually became so low that personal computers by the 1990s, and then mobile computers ( smartphones and tablets) in the 2000s, became ubiquitous. Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) then enabled semiconductor memory and the microprocessor, leading to another key breakthrough, the miniaturized personal computer (PC), in the 1970s.
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The development of transistor technology and then the integrated circuit chip led to a series of breakthroughs, starting with transistor computers and then integrated circuit computers, causing digital computers to largely replace analog computers. Although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased the precision of results. Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanism.
distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a voltage). Later, computers represented numbers in a continuous form (e.g. The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary arithmetic operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result. The machine operator was called the computer. Early mechanical tools to help humans with digital calculations, like the abacus, were referred to as calculating machines or calculators (and other proprietary names). Before the 20th century, most calculations were done by humans. The history of computing hardware covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to modern day computers. From left to right: ENIAC board, EDVAC board, ORDVAC board, and BRLESC-I board, showing the trend toward miniaturization.
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